Seven Wonders Part VII the Lighthouse of Alexandria

Ptolemy Soter commissioned the construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was also known as Pharos Lighthouse, so named for the island it was built on. Architect Sostratos of Knidos started construction of it in 270 B.C. The lighthouse was not completed until after Soter’s death, when his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus came to power.

The cost of its erection was eight hundred talents, they say; and, not to omit the magnanimity that was shown by King Ptolemæus on this occasion, he gave permission to the architect, Sostratus of Cnidos, to inscribe his name upon the edifice itself. The object of it is, by the light of its fires at night, to give warning to ships, of the neighbouring shoals, and to point out to them the entrance of the harbour. — Pliny the Elder

Constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone, the tower was made up of three sections: a lower square section with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at the top, a circular section. The Pharos' masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead, to withstand the pounding of the waves.

The lowest, square part was almost 200 feet high. It is believed this section had 364 rooms measuring from ten to twenty cubits square. The rooms were designed with vents and windows in order to absorb gusts of wind against the Lighthouse reducing the risk of collapse. These rooms were covered with beams of teakwood and an arch of stones, cemented and decorated. There were also a series of 72 wide ramps creating access to the top of the Lighthouse. Viewing galleries were constructed on the second and third levels of the structure where visitors could experience a view from nearly 400 feet high.

The interior of the upper two sections had a shaft with a dumbwaiter that was used to transport fuel up to the fire. Wood was scarce in Egypt and the fire for the beacon was most likely fuelled by bundles of papyrus roots, which was often used as firewood. Whatever the source, the light from it would have been greatly increased by the mirror.

There are many legends and myths surrounding the mirror. Some say that the mirror was used as a weapon to concentrate the rays of the sun to set enemy ships on fire as they approached the harbour. Other myths refer to the use of a powerful telescope which was located at the top of the Lighthouse which used refracting mirrors to magnify objects.

The Lighthouse stood for 1,500 years. As happened to so many ancient buildings, earthquakes eventually brought it down. The first one, in 1303, shook up the entire area; the second one, 20 years later, did significant structural damage. By this time, the Lighthouse had fallen into disrepair. In 1480, Sultan Qaitbay used the stone and marble that had once made up the Lighthouse to build a fort on the very spot where the Lighthouse once stood.

In 1994 archaeologists found large blocks underwater that they believe to have been part of the Pharos Lighthouse. In 2016, the Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt made a plan to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, into an underwater museum. In a few years visitors may be able to rent scuba gear and dive in the bay among the remains of the great Pharos Lighthouse.

Seven Wonders Part VI The Colossus at Rhodes

The island of Rhodes was an important economic centre in the ancient world. In 357 B.C. it was conquered by Mausolus of Halicarnassus, fell into Persian hands in 340 B.C., and was finally captured by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.

When Alexander died his vast kingdom was divided between three of his generals: Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Antigous. The Rhodians supported Ptolemy (who wound up ruling Egypt) in this struggle which angered Antigous. He sent his son Demetrius to capture and punish the city of Rhodes.

The war was long, and ended when a fleet of ships from Egypt arrived to aid the city. To celebrate their victory and freedom, the people of Rhodes decided to build a giant statue of their patron god Helios. They melted down bronze from the many war machines Demetrius left behind for the exterior of the figure, and the siege tower he left behind became the scaffolding for the project.

The statue was one hundred and ten feet high and stood on a fifty-foot pedestal near the harbour mouth. Although the statue has been popularly depicted with its legs spanning the harbour entrance so that ships could pass beneath, it was actually posed in a more traditional Greek manner: nude, wearing a spiked crown, shading its eyes from the rising sun with its right hand, while holding a cloak over its left.

The architect of this great construction was Chares of Lindos, a Rhodian sculptor. The statue was constructed of bronze plates over an iron framework. Ancient accounts tell us that inside the statue were several stone columns which acted as the main support. Iron beams were driven into the stone and connected with the bronze outer skin. Each bronze plate had to be carefully cast then hammered into the right shape for its location in the figure, then hoisted into position and riveted to the surrounding plates and the iron frame.

The Colossus stood at the harbour entrance for some fifty-six years. Then an earthquake hit Rhodes and the statue collapsed. Huge pieces of the figure lay along the harbour for centuries.

But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus; no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration.
— Pliny the Elder

It is said that Ptolemy III Eurgetes of Egypt offered to pay for its reconstruction, but the Rhodians refused. They feared that somehow the statue had offended the god Helios, who used the earthquake to throw it down.

In the seventh century A.D. the Arabs conquered Rhodes and broke the remains of the Colossus up into smaller pieces and sold it as scrap metal. Legend says it took 900 camels to carry away the statue. Another sad ending for what was once one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Seven Wonders Part V the Mausoleum of Mausolus at Halicarnassus

The city of Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum, Turkey) was the capitol of Caria, a small kingdom along the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. From 377 B.C. to 350 B.C. it was ruled by Mausolus and his queen Artemisia (who was also his sister).

When Mausolus died in 353 B.C., his body was entombed in what became known as the Maussolleion or Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. It is from the name Mausolus itself that the term mausoleum was created and associated with all tombs.

The tomb, planned by the ruler for himself was designed by the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene. After the death of Mausolus, Artemisia had work on the tomb continue. She, too, died before it was completed and was interred there as well.

The Mausoleum was made up of three parts: a square base on the bottom, 36 columns (9 on each side) in the middle, and topped by a stepped pyramid that had 24 steps. All of this was covered in ornate carvings and embellished with life-size and larger-than-life statues. At the very top was a 25-foot-high marble sculpture consisted of standing statues of both Mausolus and Artemisia riding in a chariot pulled by four horses.

Much of the Mausoleum was made out of marble and the entire structure reached 140 feet high. It was built on a hill that overlooked the city and sat on a stone platform in the center of a courtyard. Although large, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was known more for its ornate sculptures and carvings, most of which were painted in vibrant colors.

Five famous sculptors worked on the ornamentation of the tomb. Each sculptor had a section that they were responsible for – Bryaxis (north side), Scopas (east side), Timotheus (south side), and Leochares (west side). The chariot on top was created by Pythias. A staircase, flanked by stone lions, led to the top of the platform and statues of gods and goddesses adorned the outer wall.

Even when the city fell to Alexander the Great in 334 B.C. the Mausoleum remained undisturbed. In fact, it endured for almost 1,800 years before being destroyed by a series of earthquakes. By 1404 A.D. only the base of the Mausoleum survived.

After that much of the marble was recycled by the Crusaders, who occupied the city by then. It was used to build other buildings and reinforce the walls of the fortress they were using. In 1522 the crypt itself was raided and over time the Mausoleum was forgotten and houses were built on the site.

In the 1950s, Charles Newton, a British archaeologist, was the first to recognize that some of the decorations at Bodrum Castle (the former Crusader fortress) could have come from the Mausoleum. After extensive research and excavating, he found the site of the Mausoleum. This led to the recovery of many sections of the reliefs that had once decorated the walls and several statues, which can now be found in the British Museum in London.

The ruins are still visible today, as a protected site, in the center of the city of Bodrum. There is not much to be seen, however, as little is left but an earth pit with a few stones and column drums. A sad fate for what was once a wonder of the world.

Seven Wonders Part IV – the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

I have seen the walls and Hanging Gardens of ancient Babylon, the statue of Olympian Zeus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the mighty work of the high Pyramids and the tomb of Mausolus. But when I saw the temple at Ephesus rising to the clouds, all these other wonders were put in the shade.
— Philon of Byzantium

Artemis was the Greek goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, the Moon, and chastity. She was the twin sister of Apollo. Though she was worshipped widely throughout Greece, it seemed she had some trouble keeping a place of worship.

The first shrine to the goddess Artemis was probably built around 800 B.C. on a marshy strip near the river at Ephesus. The shrine was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the next few hundred years. By 600 B.C., the city of Ephesus had become a major port of trade and an architect named Chersiphron was engaged to build a new, large, temple.

This temple didn't last long. In 550 B.C. King Croesus of Lydia conquered Ephesus. During the fighting, the temple was destroyed. Croesus proved himself a gracious winner though, by contributing generously to the building of a new temple.

The new temple was the pride of Ephesus until 356 B.C. when it was burned to the ground by Herostratus, who did this so that his name would go down in history. Shortly after this infamous deed, a new temple was commissioned.

The architect was Scopas of Paros, one of the most famous sculptors of his day. Ephesus was one of the greatest cities in Asia Minor at this point and no expense was spared in the construction. The temple was built in the same marshy place as before. To prepare the ground, Piny recorded that "layers of trodden charcoal were placed beneath, with fleeces covered with wool upon the top of them."

The building is thought to be the first completely constructed with marble and one of its most unusual features were 36 columns whose lower portions were carved with figures in high-relief.

The temple also housed many works of art including four bronze statues of Amazon women. Piny recorded the length of this new temple at 425 feet and the width at 225 feet. Some 127 columns, 60 feet in height, supported the roof. In comparison the Parthenon, the remains of which stand on the acropolis in Athens today, was only 230 feet long, 100 feet wide and had 58 columns. According to Piny, construction took 120 years, though some experts suspect it may have only taken half that time.

This Temple of Artemis was destroyed in A.D. 262 during a raid by the Goths. By this time both the religion of Artemis and the city of Ephesus were in decline. The bay where trading ships docked disappeared as silt from the river filled it. Many of the inhabitants of the city moved away to the surrounding hills; those that remained used the ruins of the temple as a source of building materials.

In 1863 the British Museum sent John Turtle Wood, an architect, to search for the temple. He searched for six years. Each year the British Museum threatened to cut off his funding unless he found something significant, and each year he convinced them to fund him for just one more season.

Finally in 1869, at the bottom of a muddy twenty-foot deep test pit, his crew struck the base of the great temple. Wood then excavated the whole foundation removing 132,000 cubic yards of the swamp to leave a hole some 300 feet wide and 500 feet long. The remains of some of the sculptured portions were found and shipped to the British Museum.

In 1904 another British Museum expedition, under the leadership of D.G. Hograth, continued the excavation. Hograth found evidence of five temples on the site, each constructed on top of the other.

Today the site of the temple is a marshy field. A single column is erect to remind visitors that once there stood in that place one of the wonders of the ancient world.

Seven Wonders Part III - the Statue of Zeus at Olympia

When the Temple of Zeus was completed at Olympia in 456 B.C., it was considered too simple to be worthy of the king of the gods. A statue of Zeus was commissioned from a sculptor named Phidias, already famous for his forty-foot high statue of the goddess Athena. It took him 12 years but the project was completed by 435 B.C.

The figure's skin was composed of ivory and the beard, hair and robe of gold. Construction was by a technique known as chryselephantine, where gold-plated bronze and ivory sections were attached to a wooden frame. Because the weather in Olympia was so damp, the statue required care so that the humidity would not crack the ivory. It is said that for centuries the descendents of Phidias held the responsibility for this maintenance. To keep it in good shape the statue was constantly treated with olive oil kept in a special reservoir, which also served as a reflecting pool, in the floor of the temple. Light reflecting off the pool from the doorway may also have had the effect of illuminating the statue.

Besides the statue, there was little inside the temple. The Greeks preferred the interior of their shrines to be simple. The seated statue was 12 meters (43 feet) tall, and occupied half of the width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. "It seems that if Zeus were to stand up," geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century BC, "he would unroof the temple."

The god sits on a throne, and he is made of gold and ivory. On his head lies a garland which is a copy of olive shoots. In his right hand he carries a Victory [Nike], which, like the statue, is of ivory and gold; she wears a ribbon and—on her head—a garland. In the left hand of the god is a sceptre, ornamented with every kind of metal, and the bird sitting on the sceptre is the eagle. The sandals also of the god are of gold, as is likewise his robe. On the robe are embroidered figures of animals and the flowers of the lily. The throne is adorned with gold and with jewels, to say nothing of ebony and ivory. Upon it are painted figures and wrought images.
Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 5, Ch. 11

No copy in marble or bronze has survived, though there are recognizable but approximate versions on coins of nearby Elis and on Roman coins to give researchers clues about its appearance.

The Roman Emperor Caligula decreed that all such statues of gods were to be brought to Rome so that the heads could be removed and his own put in their place. The scaffolding attached to the statue collapsed, accompanied by, according to legend, a loud laughing noise. Shortly after this Caligula was assassinated (41 A.D.).

In 391 A.D. Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned the worship of the pagan gods and ordered the temples closed. The Olympia temple fell into disrepair and was eventually brought down by earthquakes.

The fate of the statue of Zeus is largely unknown. Some believe it was carried off to Constantinople where it was destroyed in a fire in 475 A.D. Others believe it was destroyed by earthquakes and fire along with the temple that housed it.

Seven Wonders Part II – The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Legend says the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built by King Nebuchadnezzar in 600 B.C. for his queen, Amyitis, who missed the mountains and greenery of her homeland.

The Hanging Gardens probably did not really hang but were built on terraces which were part of a ziggurat and was irrigated by water lifted up from the Euphrates. The name comes from an inexact translation of the Greek word kremastos, or the Latin word pensilis, which means not just "hanging", but "overhanging" as in the case of a terrace or balcony.

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus gave one of the best accounts of the site:
The approach to the Garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier. On all this, the earth had been piled…and was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size and other charm, gave pleasure to the beholder. The water machines [raised] the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it.

Impressive not only for its beauty, the gardens would also have required an impressive feat of engineering to supply the massive structure with soil and water. There were paths and steps and fountains and gorgeous flowers. The gardens were rumoured to be about 400 feet wide, 400 feet long, and over 80 feet high. Some historians believe the gardens were built in a series of platforms that all together were 320 feet high.

Stone tablets from Nebuchadnezzar’s reign give detailed descriptions of the city of Babylonia, its walls, and the palace, but do not refer to the Hanging Gardens, which make some historians question whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon ever actually existed.

In 1899, German archaeologist Robert Koldewey discovered a basement with fourteen large rooms with stone arch ceilings while excavating the Southern Citadel at Babylon. Ancient records indicated that only two locations in the city had made use of stone, the north wall of the Northern Citadel, and the Hanging Gardens.

The north wall of the Northern Citadel had already been found and had, indeed, contained stone. This made it seem likely that Koldewey had found the cellar of the gardens. He continued exploring the area and discovered many of the features reported by Diodorus. Finally a room was unearthed with three large, strange holes in the floor. Koldewey concluded this had been the location of the chain pumps that raised the water to the garden's roof. The foundations that Koldewey discovered measured some 100 by 150 feet. Smaller than the measurements described by ancient historians, but still impressive.

While Koldewey was convinced he'd found the gardens, some modern archaeologists call his discovery into question, arguing that this location is too far from the river to have been irrigated with the amount of water that would have been required. Also, tablets recently found at the site suggest that the location was used for administrative and storage purposes, not as a pleasure garden.

It can be argued, however, that the Hanging Gardens are not mentioned in the Babylonian stone tablets because they were considered part of the ziggurat structure and not a separate entity in itself.

We may never know for sure whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon really did exist. If the gardens did exist, they were most likely destroyed by an earthquake in the second century B.C. In this case, the fallen remains, mostly made of mud-brick, would have slowly eroded away over the centuries.

Seven Wonders Part I – Pyramids of Giza

The Great Pyramids consist of the Pyramid of Khufu (or Cheops), the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Chephren), and the relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinos).

By far the most famous pyramid in Egypt, is the Pyramid of Khufu, the biggest, tallest, and most intact. For a period of 4300 years, the Pyramid was also the tallest building on earth, until the French built the Eiffel Tower in 1889.

Khufu reigned from around 2589 to 2566 BC and was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He was the son of another great pyramid builder, King Sneferu. Although Sneferu was remembered as a benevolent and beneficent ruler, Khufu is believed to have been a more ruthless and cruel despot.

The Pyramid of Khufu is built entirely of limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains around 1,300,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tons to 15 tons and is built on a square base with sides measuring about 230m (755ft), covering 13 acres. Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52 degrees. The original height of the Pyramid was 146.5m (488ft), but today it is only 137m (455ft) high. The 9m (33ft) that is missing is due to the theft of the fine quality limestone covering, or casing stones, by the Ottoman Turks in the 15 Century A.D, to build houses and Mosques in Cairo.

The second great pyramid was built by Khafre, Khufu’s son. Khafre was the fourth ruler of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt, ruling from 2558-2532 BCE. His name means "Appearing like Ra.” Like his father Khufu, Khafre was depicted as a harsh, despotic ruler.

Despite this, Egypt was quite prosperous during his reign, with almost no military attacks or campaigns. The culture flourished, however, and the private tombs from his era are beautiful examples of art and architecture. In addition, the worship of the sun god Re was also prospering.

He built his pyramid at Giza next to that of his father. It’s easily recognisable by the layers of its original casing stones that still remain near its summit. This, along with the fact that it stands on a higher part of the plateau, gives the impression that it is taller than the Great Pyramid. This is an optical illusion as it is only 136m (446 ft) tall, with sides of 214.5m (704ft), a surface area of 11 acres and an angle of 53 degrees. It also has lost some of its original height through the years.

Khafre’s son, Menkaure, built the smallest of the three main pyramids on the Giza Plateau. Menkaure was a pharaoh of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt (c. 2532 BC–2503 BC). His name means "Eternal like the Souls of Re".

He is reported by the Greek historian Herodotus to have been a just and pious ruler. He was thought to have disapproved of the conduct of his father and the Egyptians praised him more than any other monarch.

Menakure’s pyramid was only a mere 65.5m (215ft) tall, nowadays 62m (203ft), with sides of only 105m (344ft) and an angle of 51.3 degrees. It is thought that this pyramid was altered during its construction, and made a lot bigger than originally planned. The original, smaller pyramid had a simple descending corridor and burial chamber, but when it was enlarged, a new corridor was built with 3 portcullises and a small panelled chamber. Later still, another burial chamber, along with a storeroom were added at a lower level. This Pyramid, like its two neighbours, has a north facing entrance.

Wonders of the World – Introduction

After much deliberation, I finally decided on the Wonders of the World for my next non-fiction series. There is a plethora of lists of wonders – natural wonders, underwater wonders, engineering wonders, new wonders, city wonders, solar system wonders – to name but a few.

Seeing as I have a love of ancient history, I’m choosing to go with the original Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Scholars have debated for years over who compiled the first list of wonders – or as the Greeks called them, theamata, which translates as "things to be seen". It has been suggested that Callimachus of Cyrene drafted the list in the third century B.C. or Herodotus, who lived from around 484 to 425 B.C.

It’s generally agreed that Antipater, a Greek author living in the Phoenician port of Sidon came up with the original list in a poem where he lists the most remarkable creations of mankind:

I have gazed on the walls of impregnable Babylon along which chariots may race, and on the Zeus by the banks of the Alpheus, I have seen the hanging gardens, and the Colossus of the Helios, the great man-made mountains of the lofty pyramids, and the gigantic tomb of Mausolus; but when I saw the sacred house of Artemis that towers to the clouds, the others were placed in the shade, for the sun himself has never looked upon its equal outside Olympus.
– Antipater, Greek Anthology IX.58

Somewhere around the 8th century AD the walls of Babylon were dropped off the list, to be replaced by the Lighthouse of Alexandria.

Of the original seven wonders, only the Great Pyramid still exists. The others are in unrecognizable ruins, and the Hanging Gardens might not even have existed at all. What we know about the wonders comes from written accounts of ancient tourists and modern archaeological research. Much of our information about the monuments is conjecture or questionable second hand accounts.

These monuments may not have physically stood the test of time, but they thrive in our imaginations as some of the most magnificent manmade structures of the ancient world.

the Great Pyramids of Giza, Egypt.
the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
the Statue of Zeus at Olympia, Greece.
the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.
the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.
the Colossus of Rhodes.
the Lighthouse of Alexandria, Egypt.

Join me next week when I start with the Great Pyramids of Giza.

Superstitions XIV – Odds ‘N Ends

One of our most enduring superstitions is making a wish and blowing out the candles on a birthday cake. If you can blow them all out in one breath, your wish will come true. The ancient Greeks would bake round honey cake and top it with candles, symbolizing the moon, as an offering to the goddess Artemis when they wished her favour. It was believed the lingering smoke would carry wishes to the gods as it rose in the air.

You should never place two mirrors facing each other. The infinite reflections are pretty cool, but facing mirrors open a doorway for the devil.

Never give a blade as a gift as it will sever your relationship. If you receive a knife, or even a pair of scissors, as a gift, you need to give the giver a coin in return.

Going home directly after a funeral will invite a bad spirit to tag along and enter your home. You should make a stop at a restaurant or store along the way, just in case.

Whistling indoors is thought to summon demons.

Greek mythology has it that if you toast with a cup of water you’re actually wishing death upon the people you’re drinking with.

It’s bad luck to place someone’s shoes on a table as it used to be of the ways of letting the family know they had passed away. .

The Egyptians believe that if you see or hear an owl it means terrible news is coming. The Italians, however, believe that an owl in your house means someone is going to die.

Wedding bells are meant to ward off evil spirits who might try and ruin the marriage.

Singing at the dinner table means you’re singing to the devil for your food.

Some people hold their breath when they pass a cemetery, but you should actually tuck your thumbs in to protect your parents from death.

Be careful not to step on a manhole that has the letter A on it or it will bring you a broken heart and bad luck.

Never cut your nails after the sun goes down – it can cause premature death.

Superstitions XIII - Luck

Good Luck

Luck from a wishbone dates back to the Etruscans, who used chickens to predict the future. They believed the collarbone, or wishbone, of the chicken was sacred and would dry them in the sun to keep for luck. To share the luck they would break them apart. The person who gets the biggest piece gets the bigger share of the luck, or wish.

If you say “rabbit rabbit” on the first day of the month, it ensures good luck for the month. It’s a little unclear why this is a common belief in Britain and North America, but it’s also believed that a rabbit’s foot (the left hind foot) is also lucky.

Crossing your fingers to bring good dates back to early Christianity. Two people would cross index fingers, making a cross, when making a wish, the one in support of the other. Anything associated with the shape of the cross was considered lucky. In time crossing fingers for luck became something someone could do on their own.

While accidentally stepping in dog poop might seem like a bad thing, it’s only bad luck if you step with your right foot. If you step with your left foot it’s considered lucky.

Bird poop is also considered lucky, especially if it lands on you, your home, or your car. It signifies money will be coming your way.

In Spain, instead of kissing someone at midnight on New Year’s, you should eat twelve grapes one after another to bring good luck for the year.

Once upon a time, it was considered extremely lucky to get your hands on a piece of the bride. To keep the dress and veil in one piece, brides began throwing their bouquets in the air to distract the crazed guests. Today it’s believed that whoever catches the bridal bouquet will be lucky in love and the next one to marry.

A belief in beginner’s luck is an example of confirmation bias. This is a psychological condition where a person believes events that fit their world view. If they believe they are going to win because they’re a beginner, they’re more likely to remember all the times this was true in the past and forget the times they lost.

Bad Luck

Bad luck coming in threes is another example of confirmation bias. If something goes wrong, you begin to look for other bad things to happen and ignore the good.

Walking into a room with your left foot is bad luck – you should always enter or leave a room with your right.

You should never wish someone a happy birthday before the day arrives or it will cause bad luck.

Opening an umbrella indoors has been thought to bring bad luck since the time of the pharaohs. The parasols ancient Egyptians used were believed to be magic because they protected them from the sun. When one is opened indoors, out of the sun’s rays, it offends the sun god and incurs bad luck.

A flock of birds going from left to right means that bad luck is on the way.

The Greeks find Tuesday the most unlucky day of the week, but especially Tuesday the 13th. It was on Tuesday 13, 1204 that Constantinople fell to the Crusaders.

But they’re not the only ones who have a thing about Tuesday. Many countries in Latin America believe you shouldn’t get married, go on a trip, or leave your house on a Tuesday because you’re sure to have bad luck.

In Italy it’s considered bad luck to lay bread upside down on a table or in a basket. Bread represents the body of Christ and therefore needs to be treated with respect.

According to Welsh tradition, it is unlucky to cut a baby’s fingernails before they’re six months old. The mother should bite them off instead.

The Japanese believe that sleeping with your head to the north is bad luck because that's how the deceased are laid to rest. The same superstition exists in Africa for sleeping with your head to the west.

Better not take any chances and sleep with your head to the south or east tonight.

Pleasant dreams!

Superstitions XII – Ladders

Everybody knows it’s bad luck to walk under a ladder, but do you know why?

The oldest instance of this superstition comes to us from ancient Egypt. When a ladder leans against a wall it creates a triangular shape, like a pyramid. This shape was sacred to the Egyptians as it represented the trinity of the gods. To pass through a triangle was to desecrate it and incur the wrath of the gods.

The followers of Jesus Christ had a different take on this superstition, linking it to the death of Christ. Because a ladder had rested against the cross Jesus had been hung on, it became a symbol of wickedness, betrayal, and death. To walk under a ladder was to court misfortune.

The Holy Trinity of the Christians is made up of three parts – the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit – making the number three sacred. The triangle, having three sides, became sacred by association. As with the Egyptians, a ladder leaning up against a wall was seen as a triangle and to walk under the ladder, or through the triangle, was seen as breaking the Holy Trinity. Breaking the Holy Trinity was considered blasphemy and the person who did so was believed to be in league with the devil. This kind of label was a quick path to the witch trials and the hangman’s noose.

Before the creation of the gallows, murderers were hung from the top of a ladder. The ladder was propped up and the person being hung was made to climb up to the rope. After they died it was said that their ghost would remain after the body had fallen. This made the area around the ladder very unlucky.

There are, of course, more pedestrian reasons why walking under a ladder is unlucky. The presence of a ladder suggests someone is standing on it to do some work. You don’t want to walk under a ladder and have something fall on your head, nor would you want to risk jostling it and causing someone to fall.

But as with most superstitions, there are ways to reverse the bad luck:

- make a wish while you’re walking under the ladder.
- spit through the ladder’s rungs three times.
- walk backwards through the ladder again.
- cross your fingers until you see a dog.
- spit on your shoe and continue walking, but don’t look at your shoe again until the spit has dried.
- say “bread and butter” as you walk under the ladder.
- put your thumb between your index and middle fingers as you walk under the ladder (but be warned, this is called the “fig sign” and is sometimes seen as a mildly obscene gesture.

Or better yet, don’t take any chances and just avoid walking under a ladder in the first place.

Superstitions XI – Itching Palms

Originally, this series was supposed to end with the New Year’s post. But as usually happens when holidays do not conveniently fall on a weekend, my days got kind of mixed up in my head. Yesterday I suddenly realized it was Tuesday and I needed a post for the next day. Oops!

When I did what I thought was going to be a little research, I was surprised at just how many superstitions about itchy palms there are.

Right to receive and left to leave
rub on wood and it's sure to be good,
rub on brass and it will come fast.

The ancient Saxons and Celts believed an itchy palm brought good luck, but if you scratched it the luck would go away. The only way to keep it is to scratch your palm on a piece of wood.

The roots of the superstition can be traced back to the pre-Christian era. The Saxons believed that rubbing silver on your skin was a cure for many diseases, so they would rub an itchy palm with silver. This eventually became the superstition that silver was coming your way. This belief was later adopted by Roman fortune tellers and turned into the version we know today.

If your left hand itches:
- you’re likely to become rich.
- indicates you’ll be on the receiving end of several opportunities.
- means you’ll be on the receiving end of a fight.
- quickly scratch it on wood and you’ll receive money.

If your right hand itches:
- don’t scratch it or you’ll lose money.
- you’ll meet someone new
- you’ll shake hands with a stranger.
- you should clean house – company’s coming.
- a friend you haven’t seen in a long time is coming to pay a call.
- it means you want to give someone a beating.
- news from afar or a letter is coming your way, but you’ll have to spit in your palm to receive it.
- money is coming, but to get it you’ll have to shove your hand in your pocket. If you don’t, the money will never come.

There is also the belief that itchy palms are an indication of some kind of internal energy. The right hand indicates active energy and the left hand is passive, or receptive. So if your right palm itches it means the energy is moving outward, and if the left one is itchy it means you are receiving energy.

Or an itchy palm might just mean you’ve got a bad case of eczema or you’ve touched something you’re allergic to. Better check with your doctor, just in case.

Superstitions X – New Year’s

I don’t think any of us will be sorry to see the last of 2020, but you might want to check out these superstitions before you wave the final bye bye.

Stock your cupboards up with food and your wallet with money to bring prosperity in the New Year. Empty pockets or empty cupboards on New Year’s Eve portend a year of poverty.

Open a window a few minutes before midnight on New Year’s Eve to let the bad luck out and welcome in good luck for the New Year. Then at the stroke of midnight you should open all the doors of the house to let the old year escape unimpeded.

It’s tradition to make a lot of noise at New Year celebrations to scare away the devil and his servants. Church bells are rung at midnight for the same reason.

Kissing at midnight ensures that affections and ties will continue throughout the New Year. It is also said that to not do this would be to set the stage for a year of coldness.

If you eat 12 grapes at midnight (one for each month of the year) you will have good luck for the entire year.

One food you don’t want to eat, however, is lobster. It’s believed that eating lobster before midnight on New Year’s Eve is bad luck because they move backwards, which will set you up for a year of obstacles. You also don’t want to eat chicken because chickens have wings and your good luck could fly away.

The direction of wind during sunrise on New Year morning prophesies about the coming year. Wind from south foretells fine weather and prosperous times ahead while wind from north foretells bad weather. Wind blowing from east foretells natural calamities and wind from west foretells plenty of milk and fish for all, but death of a person of great national importance. No wind means joy and prosperity throughout the year.

Nothing should be carried outside on New Year’s day to avoid carrying out the family’s good luck for the year ahead

Don’t leave the house until someone enters from the outside first on New Year’s Day. And no one should enter the home from the outside world without bringing in something from outside, to ensure a year of prosperity for the family within.

The appearance of an unexpected visitor on New Year’s Day means a year full of company for the household. If the unexpected visitor is a man it’s considered good luck, but if it’s a woman it means trouble.

If you dance in the open air, especially round a tree, on New Year's Day it ensures luck in love and prosperity and freedom from ill health during the coming twelve months.

Avoid breaking things or crying on the first day of the year if you don't want to continue the pattern for the entire year.

In several countries, people do not let money, jewelry, precious items or other valuable things leave home on New Year’s Day. You should also not pay loans and bills or lend things to anybody.

Mountain superstitions dictate that the traditional meal for New Year’s Day is black-eyed peas and hog jowl. The black-eyed peas are served in heaping helpings because each pea or bean eaten is a guarantee of one day of good luck. Hog jowl is also considered good luck.

You should only do a token amount of work on New Year’s Day to ensure advancement in your career, and starting a serious work project is unlucky. Working hard at a task will guarantee a year of hard labor, since whatever deeds are performed will influence a person's actions for the rest of the year. People go to the extent of not taking out garbage or even sweeping their carpets on this day to ensure that nothing goes out of home during the year.

It is also believed that washing dishes and doing laundry on New Year's Day will lead to a death in the family during the year. Many people do not even wash hair on New Year day.

Any superstition that tells me I shouldn’t wash dishes or do laundry is one I can really get behind. :-)

May you have nothing but luck in the New Year.

Superstitions IX – Christmas

With Christmas being so commercialized these days, it’s easy to forget its old-fashioned roots and traditions. And let’s not forget the superstitions. Many, many superstitions.

Christmas evergreens represent endurance while the berries represent resurrection of life. Since the 15th century, holly and ivy were essential part of Christmas decorations for church. If the holly used for Christmas decorations is smooth the wife will be master. If the holly used for Christmas decorations is prickly the husband is the master. Prudent couples use both kinds of hollies on Christmas to assure balanced and harmonious home.

Mistletoe, also known as Celtic-All-Heal was popular by the 19th century. Since the times of druids, it was associated with fertility and kissing. Luck favors those who kiss under the mistletoe but turns against those who avoid it. It is bad luck to take Christmas mistletoe down and it should only be replaced on the following Christmas. Burning old mistletoe was said to predict marriage prospects of an unmarried girl. Steady flames ensured happy marital life while the spluttering flames predicted bad tempered and cross husbands.

The Yule log should be lit by a piece of the log used on the previous Christmas. Once that is done, no evil spirit can then enter into the house. Yule Logs should never be bought. Once lit, it must burn all through the 12 days of Christmas otherwise bad luck will visit the household. Any difficulty in lighting the Yule log was taken as a bad omen for the year ahead. Yule logs were burnt on the Christmas fire and many people kept a piece on the log from the previous year as a lucky talisman.

Small amounts of lead were melted over the Yule log then poured into a container of water. The resulting shape was then used to predict future about the pourer

After the Christmas dinner, a popular parlor game was to float walnut shells as boats with small burning candles in them in a bowl of water. The owners whose boat crossed across the bowl safely were said to be endowed with prosperity for the coming year while bad luck awaited those whose boats sunk in the bowl.

Everyone was given an apple after dinner, which was then cut in half lengthwise. If the core was star-shaped, the company was sure of meeting again safely next year. If anybody's core was in a different shape, their death was predicted within twelve months' time. The appearance of four-point cross was a particularly bad omen.

The weather on each of the twelve days of Christmas signifies what the weather will be on the appropriate month of the coming year. If you really want to know the rainfall for the next year, you can hollow out 12 onions, putting salt into each. Each onion is named after a month of the year, and there will be rain in every month where the salt in that onion is wet. And if Christmas Day falls on a Thursday, the following year will be windy.

Whatever you dream on any of the 12 nights between Christmas and Epiphany (January 6) will come to pass within the next year.

Singing Christmas carols at any time other than during the festive season is unlucky.

Failing to decorate a Christmas tree will cause spring to never come – instead you’ll have bad luck and evil spirits.

A dog that howls on Christmas Eve will go mad.

If an apple is eaten at midnight on Christmas Eve, good health will follow for a year.

The gender of the first visitor to the house on Christmas Eve was said to foretell the sex of the child of the pregnant women in the household.

The gates of Heaven open at midnight on Christmas Eve. Those who die then go straight to Heaven (an Irish belief).

Christmas candles should be left burning until Christmas morning and should rest undisturbed from time of lighting until they are snuffed.

On Christmas morning the first person down the stairs must quickly open the front door and sweep trouble out the door.

Never give shoes for Christmas gifts. Giving a new pair of shoes as Christmas gifts would make your friends walk away from you.

Snow on Christmas means Easter will be green.

The first person to hear the rooster crow on Christmas Day is assured of good luck.

Every mince pie you eat at Christmas means a happy month in the year to come.

Bathing on Christmas Day will keep you safe from fevers and toothache in the year to come.

It’s bad luck to leave the dinner table before everyone has finished on Christmas Day.

The child born on Christmas Day will have a special fortune.

A Christmas tree should never be thrown out doors or it will attract evil spirits and goblins. Christmas trees should be burned, but save a section to be used as next year’s Yule log.

To avoid bad luck, all of your Christmas decorations should be down by Candlemas (February 2).

Superstitions VIII - Theatre Superstitions

Performers in the theatre are among the most superstitious people alive, so it’s no wonder I can dedicate an entire post to theatre superstitions. Some of them you may be familiar with, but others may take you by surprise.

Never wish an actor “good luck” say “break a leg” instead. There are two reasons for this. The first is that many theatre folk believe the theatre is filled with mischief-making spirits who will use their magic to cause the opposite of what you wish to happen. The other explanation is the word “leg” does not refer to the actor but to the curtains that mask the backstage which are known as “legs.” “Breaking a leg” means you’ve crossed from the backstage into the front, thus entering the spotlight.

It’s bad luck to say the name of the play Macbeth in the theatre as it curses the production. Many actors will refer to it as the Scottish play or the Bard’s play instead. It’s widely believed that Shakespeare used a real spell incantation for the opening scene and real witches cursed the play because of this. In 1606 the actor playing Lady Macbeth died tragically and Shakespeare himself had to step into the role. Other productions have been plagued with accidents such as actors falling off the stage, mysterious deaths, and even narrow misses by falling stage weights.

The last person leaving the theatre at night is responsible for leaving on the ghost light – a light in the middle of the stage that stays on when all other lights have been turned off. Now this may have a more practical reason seeing as there’s usually a lot of debris on stage for someone to trip over in the dark, but the light also appeases any spirits who may be living in the theatre and keeps them from playing pranks.

It’s bad luck to whistle backstage. This superstition started in the middle of the 1600s when scenery was lifted into the air by ropes and pulleys. The stage hands would communicate with each other by whistling, so a random whistle could cue a stagehand to lift or drop scenery with disastrous results.

Blue should not be worn on stage. Several centuries ago, blue dyes were expensive because they were so difficult to make and a theatre troupe’s success was often judged by the number of blue costumes it could afford. Failing troupes would spend every penny they had on blue costumes to deceive audiences into thinking they were more successful than they actually were. To distinguish themselves, the more successful troupes would adorn their blue costumes with silver because only a flourishing troupe could afford to do so. To this day, blue costumes are considered unlucky and a sign of failure unless they’re paired with silver.

Green is often shunned as well. When the spotlight was first invented it worked by burning a chemical called quicklime, which is where the term “limelight,” originated. The limelight had a greenish glow to it and any actor wearing green might not be visible when hit by the spotlight. The other reason to avoid green was that it was the colour of the costume actor/playwright Molière was wearing in 1673 when he suffered a coughing fit while onstage, brought on by tuberculosis. Though he finished his performance he had started to hemmorage and died, still in his green costume.

Bringing a peacock feather on stage will bring bad luck to a production. The eye-like pattern on the end of the feather is reminiscent of the evil eye, something that has been thought to bring on a malevolent curse since the early Greeks. Peacock feathers were also feared by the early Europeans as they were part of the adornment of the Mongols who invaded during the Middle Ages. Peacock feathers became associated with that dark and bloody history and no one wanted it associated with their production.

Don’t give gifts of flowers before the performance because it tempts the fates to ensure a lacklustre show. But interestingly enough, there was at one time a tradition that involved giving the leading lady and the director a bouquet of flowers stolen from a graveyard when the show closes to symbolize the death of the show.

It stands to reason in the early days of theatre having an open flame was dangerous as well as unlucky, theatres being built of wood with thatched roofs. Shakepeare’s Globe Theatre burned down when a cannon was set off during a production of Henry VIII. Having three lit candles on stage was considered especially unlucky, as the person standing closest to the shortest candle would be the first to die.

Mirrors on stage are considered bad luck because they reflect light, which can wreck havoc with the lighting design of a production. A reflected spotlight could blind an actor, causing him to walk right off the edge of the stage.

Other Theatre superstitions:

* A bad dress rehearsal portends a great opening night.
* To keep the ghosts of a theatre quiet, there should be at least one night a week when the theatre is empty (traditionally Monday night).
* It’s bad luck if a cat runs across the stage during a performance.
* It’s good luck if you’re greeted at the stage door by the theatre cat.
* It’s excellent luck if the cat rubs up against or sits on your knee, and it will bring good reviews.
* A loose thread on a costume must be snapped, never cut, off and wrapped around the forefinger. The number of loops will tell you how long the run of the show will be.
* Never speak the last line of the play while in rehearsals or the play will never get through a performance.

Superstitions VII – Salt

Homer called salt divine. Plato described it as a substance dear to the gods. Pythagoras said that salt was the emblem of justice.

Salt is a purifier, a preservative, and symbolizes the good and lasting qualities of life. It became a sign of hospitality, trust, and friendship because of its high price. Soldiers in Rome were often paid in salt, which is where the saying that a person was "not worth his salt" originated. It was mixed into the foods used in the religious ceremonies of both the Greeks and Romans and was also used for medicinal purposes.

In the Middle Ages salt was very valuable and the waste of it was said to bring bad luck. To avoid this bad luck you were supposed to throw a pinch of salt over your left shoulder, a remedy that was Christian in origin. By doing this, you're throwing the salt into the devil's eye to blind him and deflect the bad luck and bad health he had in store for you. You need to throw it over the left shoulder, not the right, because the angels sit to the right hand of God and the seat of the devil, the fallen angel, was to His left.

If you look closely at Leonardo da Vinci's painting of the Last Supper, you will see that the betrayer Judas has accidentally spilled salt onto the table, another reason spilling salt is considered bad luck.

In the Hartz Mountain region in Germany, peasants believe that three grains of salt in a milk-pot will keep witches away from the milk. To preserve butter from uncanny influences, it was a custom in Aberdeen, Scotland, to put salt on the lid of a churn. In Normandy the peasants would throw a little salt into a vessel containing milk in order to protect the cow who gave the milk from the influences of witchcraft.

In the Province of Quebec, French Canadians sometimes scatter salt around the doors of their stables to prevent mischievous little imps called lutins from entering and teasing the horses by sticking burrs in their manes and tails. In Marsala, west Sicily, a horse, mule, or donkey is thought to be liable to molestation by fairies when they enter a new stall. As a precautionary measure a little salt is placed on the animal's back. This is believed to insure freedom from lameness or other evil resulting from fairy spite.

The Germans of Buffalo valley in central Pennsylvania believe that a boy may be cured of homesickness by placing salt in the hems of his trousers and making him look up the chimney.

In India the natives rub salt and wine on the affected part of the body as a cure for scorpion bites, believing that the success of this treatment is due to the supernatural virtue of the salt in searing away the fiends who caused the pain.

A Magyar house-mistress will not give any salt to a woman who may come to the door and ask for it in the early morning, believing that any such would-be borrower is surely a witch; but in order to keep away all witches and hags, she strews salt on the threshold. On St. Lucien's Day neither salt nor fire must be taken out of the house.

Scots fishermen have a traditional custom of salting their nets for luck, and they also sometimes throw a little salt into the sea "to blind the fairies."

Salt and bread, representing the necessaries of life, are the first articles taken into the dwelling of a newly married pair in Russia. In Pomerania, at the close of a wedding breakfast, a servant carries about a plate containing salt, upon which the guests place presents of money.

Other superstitions regarding salt:

• In order to reverse the bad luck that was coming your way from spilling salt, enough tears must be cried to dissolve the salt that was spilled
• If salt is spilt in a particular person's direction, bad luck is coming to that person
• Tossing a pinch of spilt salt over the left shoulder is the antidote of ill luck raised
• If you have a curse or hex placed on you by a gypsy then once they leave your home throw a pinch of salt in their direction to nullify the curse
• If you have a frequent visitor whom you don’t want, then simply throw a pinch of salt at them when they’re in your house and they won’t return
• Fishermen never use the word while at sea because it’s taboo, however it’s a tradition to sprinkle fishing nets with salt to ensure a safe return
• If you want a lover to return then burn salt on seven consecutive mornings
• If you sprinkle some salt on the doorway to a new house then no evil can enter it
• If you are a bride then sprinkle a pinch of salt onto your dress for a happy marriage
• Never lend salt if you are outside the house, at a picnic etc., this will bring you very bad luck
• Newborn babies were once bathed in salt and water to ward off witchcraft
• Never offer another diner a salt cellar that is open - help me to salt, help me to sorrow
• You can tell if a girl is a virgin if she forgets to put salt onto the table

Superstitions VI – Sneezing

Who would have thought there were so many superstitions about sneezing?

Sneeze on Monday, sneeze for danger.
Sneeze on Tuesday, kiss a stranger.
Sneeze on Wednesday, sneeze for a letter.
Sneeze on Thursday, something better.
Sneeze on Friday, sneeze for woe.
Sneeze on Saturday, a journey to go.
Sneeze on Sunday, your safety seek—
For Satan will have you for the rest of the week!

Ancient man believed that his breath was also the essence of life, or soul. A rapid exhaling of that breath--a sneeze--was the same as expelling life from one's body. It also left a vacuum in the head that would allow evil spirits to enter.

The Greeks, Romans, and Egyptians considered the sneeze a kind of internal oracle that warned them in times of danger and foretold future good or evil. Sneezing to the right was considered lucky; to the left, unlucky.

There is an old legend that before the time of the Old Testament, people sneezed only once and then died. However, Jacob interceded on behalf of humankind and obtained a cessation of this rule on the condition that the words "God bless you!" follow every sneeze.

In Iceland, according to legend, there was once a terrible epidemic in which many people died. A brother and sister observed that everyone around them who succumbed to the disease was first seized by a sneezing fit. Therefore, when they themselves sneezed they cried, "God help me!" Because of this prayer they were allowed to live, and they spread the story of their healing blessing to all the inhabitants of the area. The Icelanders have continued the custom of saying, "God help me!" when they themselves sneeze and "God help you!" when others sneeze.

Closer to home, it is believed that the custom of saying "God bless you!" after a sneeze dates back to the bubonic plague. Sneezing was an early sign of catching the infection and hence of imminent death. The pope decreed that persons who sneezed should be blessed with the phrase “May God have mercy on your soul,” to protect them from imminent doom. This was later shortened to “Bless you.”

There are also many other beliefs about sneezing:

• A sneeze at the time of prayer gives negative result.
• If you sneeze without covering your face, your soul may escape.
• If anyone says good health or long life, the sneezer will live for one hundred years.
• Sneezing before stepping out of the house or at the onset of a new task or journey is considered ill luck.
• A sneeze during a conversation means the words spoken are true.
• If you sneeze when you are talking you are telling a lie.
• The first sneeze of a baby should be blessed as it means that the child is mentally balanced.
• A fool cannot sneeze.
• If you feel like sneezing and can’t, it means that someone close by is in love with you.
• If you sneeze while at a meal this means you are going to meet a new friend.
• If you sneeze two or three times in a row, it means that someone is complaining or gossiping about you.
• If you sneeze between 6 a.m. - 9 a.m., you will be lucky that day.
• If you sneeze between 9.01 a.m. - 12 p.m. you will receive good news from someone far away.
• If you sneeze between 12.01 p.m. - 3 p.m. you will receive some good news from someone of the opposite sex.
• If you sneeze between 3.01 p.m. and 6 p.m. you will receive some good news regarding business. If you have lost anything you will get it back.
• If you sneeze between 6.01 p.m. - midnight, do not accept anything from anyone because bad things will happen.
• If you sneeze between midnight until 6 a.m., someone will come to ask to stay with you. Do not allow them. If someone asks for help, do not help. They will bring trouble.

So next time you sneeze, pay close attention. It might just mean more than your allergies acting up.

Superstitions V – Black Cats

The life giving rays of the sun rest in the cat’s eyes at night for safe keeping.
~ Egyptian superstition

Originally, the black cat represented good luck. This began in Egypt with Bast, the official deity of Egypt in the 22nd Dynasty. It was believed that by bringing a black cat into the household Bast would become part of the cat in spirit and bless the home with riches and prosperity.

A strange black cat on a porch is considered to bring prosperity.
~ Scottish superstition

In the 1600’s, Charles I of England owned a black cat. He was so attached to the it that he kept it under constant guard. When the cat fell ill and died, Charles proclaimed, “Alas, my luck is gone.” The next day he was arrested and charged with high treason. Ultimately he was put to death.

Whenever the cat of the house is black, the lasses of lovers will have no lack.
~ English Proverb

In the Yorkshires, a black cat was believed to bring fishermen home safely from the seas. During the height of the fishing industry in this village, black kittens were often catnapped and sold to the highest bidder. In other parts of Europe, if a black cat crosses your path, you are considered to have good fortune. If a black cat walks into your house or home, you are truly blessed.

While dreaming of white cats is considered lucky, seeing one in the night is bad luck.
~ American superstition

Many people believe that a black cat brings good fortune and also, that anyone who finds the one perfect, pure white hair in an all-black cat and plucks it out without being scratched, will find great wealth and good luck in love.

A black cat in the audience on opening night portends a successful play.

In the English Midlands, a black cat as a wedding present is thought to bring good luck to the bride.

Any one who hears a cat sneezing is considered to be blessed with good luck.
~ Italian superstition

Fear of cats, particularly black cats, first arose in Europe during the Middle Ages, mainly in England. The cat characterizes independence, willfulness, and stealth. Alley cats were often fed by poor, lonely old ladies, and when witch hysteria struck Europe, many of these harmless women were accused of practicing black magic. Their cat companions (especially black ones) were deemed guilty of witchery by association.

In the Netherlands, cats were considered to be evil and weren't allowed in a room where private conversations were taking place. It was believed that they could spread the gossip around.

The Pilgrims brought with them not only a devout faith in the Bible, but also a deep fear of anything considered to come from the devil. They were a very suspicious people. Black cats were viewed as a witch’s familiar. A black cat was considered to be part demon and part sorcery. Anyone caught with a black cat would be severely punished or even killed.

As the Christians gained a foothold in America, they perpetuated the belief that black cats were an integral part of witchcraft. Black cats were often sought after and killed. If a farmer believed his land had a spell cast on it, the only way to break that spell was to shoot a black cat with a silver bullet.

All Hallows Eve is believed to be the time when an opening is created to the Otherworld and the black cat is considered the catalyst for that driving force.

A black cat crossing one's path by moonlight means death in an epidemic. However, killing a cat brings 17 years of bad luck.
~Irish superstition

The belief that a black cat crossing your path is unlucky depends largely upon what country you’re in. In Japan it is believed to be good luck. So the next time a black cat crosses your path, just say “Konichiwa” and turn your luck around.

Superstitions IV – Breaking Mirrors

The first reflections man had of himself were found gazing into pools, ponds, or lakes. If the image became distorted in any way, it was a mark of impending disaster or a corruption of his soul. When he became more civilized he used polished stone, such as obsidian, to reflect his images. Then came mirrors of polished metal, but they were small and heavy and used mostly for decoration.

The Romans, Greeks, Chinese, Africans, and Indian cultures, believed that a mirror had the power to confiscate part of the user's soul. If the user should break a mirror it would mean his or her soul would be trapped inside the world the mirror represented. Essentially, a broken mirror created a broken soul, which in turn lead to the broken health of the unfortunate user.

The origin of the ‘seven years of bad luck for breaking a mirror’ superstition can be traced back to the Romans, who were the first to create glass mirrors. They believed that a person's physical body renewed itself every seven years, which meant it would take seven years before the user's soul would be fully restored. Until the seven years passed, life for a mirror breaker would be one long string of unfortunate events, since he or she no longer had a healthy soul to ward off spiritual evil-doers.

There are several different ways of warding off the ill luck caused by breaking a mirror:

* Throw salt over your shoulder.
* Directly after breaking the mirror, turn around three times counterclockwise.
* Since the pieces can still reflect the corrupted soul, grind the shards into a fine powder.
* Gather the broken mirror pieces and submerge them in the waters of a south-running stream.
This will wash away the bad luck after only seven hours rather than seven days.
* Burn the mirror, or at least blacken its shards in the flames of a fire. Save the fragments for a year and then bury them, and the curse will be counteracted.
* On the first night after breaking the mirror, light seven white candles and blow them out at midnight in one breath.
* Touch a tombstone with a piece of the mirror and the hex will be lifted.
* Bury the pieces under a tree during a full moon.

Other Mirror Superstitions:

John Dee, alchemist and court magician of Queen Elizabeth I, used a mirror for scrying. He has been credited with prophesying the plot to kill King James in 1605.

It is said that having a large number of mirrors in the home is lucky because of the mirror's ability to deflect evil and attract good.

The mirror is symbolic of, among other things, money. Hang one beside the table in the dining room or kitchen to attract wealth and food to the home.

Ideally, no mirror should be hung so low that it "cuts off" the tallest household member's head (doing so may cause headaches). However, mirrors shouldn't be hung too high either.

If you feel sad or troubled while home alone with no one to talk to and no apparent way to control your blue mood, stand before a mirror and gaze into your eyes. Your anxiety should disappear.

Any mirrors in a room where someone has recently died, must be covered so that the dead person's soul does not get trapped behind the glass. Superstition has it that the Devil invented mirrors for this very purpose.

To see an image of her future husband, a woman is told to eat an apple while sitting in front of a mirror and then brush her hair. An image of the man will appear behind her shoulder.

To see your reflection in a mirror is to see your own soul, which is why a vampire, who is without a soul, has no reflection.

If a couple first catch sight of each other in a mirror, they will have a happy marriage.

If a mirror falls and breaks by itself, someone in the house will soon die.

It is bad luck to see your face in a mirror when sitting by candlelight.

Someone seeing their reflection in a room where someone has recently died will soon die themselves.

Actors believe that it is bad luck to see their reflection while looking over the shoulder of another person.

Babies should not look into a mirror for the first year of their lives.

Superstitions Part III – Knocking on Wood

If you read my post on Sunday, you may have noticed several times that I wrote *knock on wood* including in the title of the post. The expression is used when there is no wood to actually knock on, an action that’s used when you feel like you’re tempting fate and want to ward off evil. When you’re actually knocking on wood you need to do it three times, but if you’re saying it or writing it, once is fine.

The tradition traces back to an ancient pagan belief that spirits resided in trees, particularly oak, ash, holly, or hawthorn. By knocking on or touching the wood you are paying tribute to these spirits by acknowledging them and can call on them for protection against ill-fortune. It’s also a way of thanking them for their continued blessing and good luck.

The Greeks worshipped the oak because it was sacred to Zeus, the Celts believed in tree spirits, and both believed touching sacred trees would bring good fortune. Irish lore holds that "touching wood" is a way to thank the leprechauns for a bit of luck. Pagans also held similar beliefs of protective tree spirits. The Chinese and Koreans thought the spirits of mothers who died in childbirth remained in nearby trees.

A Jewish version traces the origin to the Spanish Inquisition of the 15th century. At the time, persecuted Jews fled to synagogues built of wood, and they devised a coded knock to gain admission. Since this practice spared countless lives, it became common to "knock on wood" for good luck.

Like many of their traditions, the Christians appropriated the idea of knocking on wood from the pagans, making the practice more acceptable by claiming the wood in question referred to the cross Jesus was crucified on.

In the 1800s, many children's games included a saying to knock on wood. The game of “Tiggy Touchwood” was a kind of tag in which players were “safe” whenever they touched some kind of wood like a tree or a door.

In these modern times, many traditionally wooden items only appear wood-like – tables, bookcases, etc. It’s become acceptable to knock on a table with a wood veneer, or even on something that is not wood at all, such as plastic or Formica, as long as you say "knock on wood" or "touch wood". To me, this shows that the original reason for knocking is becoming forgotten, even in folk memories, in favor of the knocking action itself.

To my surprise, while doing research for this piece, I came across many references to a person knocking on their own head if no wood was available. This is something I’m in the habit of doing, even when there is wood around. It’s nice to know I’m not the only one.