Seven Wonders Part VII the Lighthouse of Alexandria

Ptolemy Soter commissioned the construction of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was also known as Pharos Lighthouse, so named for the island it was built on. Architect Sostratos of Knidos started construction of it in 270 B.C. The lighthouse was not completed until after Soter’s death, when his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus came to power.

The cost of its erection was eight hundred talents, they say; and, not to omit the magnanimity that was shown by King Ptolemæus on this occasion, he gave permission to the architect, Sostratus of Cnidos, to inscribe his name upon the edifice itself. The object of it is, by the light of its fires at night, to give warning to ships, of the neighbouring shoals, and to point out to them the entrance of the harbour. — Pliny the Elder

Constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone, the tower was made up of three sections: a lower square section with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at the top, a circular section. The Pharos' masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead, to withstand the pounding of the waves.

The lowest, square part was almost 200 feet high. It is believed this section had 364 rooms measuring from ten to twenty cubits square. The rooms were designed with vents and windows in order to absorb gusts of wind against the Lighthouse reducing the risk of collapse. These rooms were covered with beams of teakwood and an arch of stones, cemented and decorated. There were also a series of 72 wide ramps creating access to the top of the Lighthouse. Viewing galleries were constructed on the second and third levels of the structure where visitors could experience a view from nearly 400 feet high.

The interior of the upper two sections had a shaft with a dumbwaiter that was used to transport fuel up to the fire. Wood was scarce in Egypt and the fire for the beacon was most likely fuelled by bundles of papyrus roots, which was often used as firewood. Whatever the source, the light from it would have been greatly increased by the mirror.

There are many legends and myths surrounding the mirror. Some say that the mirror was used as a weapon to concentrate the rays of the sun to set enemy ships on fire as they approached the harbour. Other myths refer to the use of a powerful telescope which was located at the top of the Lighthouse which used refracting mirrors to magnify objects.

The Lighthouse stood for 1,500 years. As happened to so many ancient buildings, earthquakes eventually brought it down. The first one, in 1303, shook up the entire area; the second one, 20 years later, did significant structural damage. By this time, the Lighthouse had fallen into disrepair. In 1480, Sultan Qaitbay used the stone and marble that had once made up the Lighthouse to build a fort on the very spot where the Lighthouse once stood.

In 1994 archaeologists found large blocks underwater that they believe to have been part of the Pharos Lighthouse. In 2016, the Ministry of State of Antiquities in Egypt made a plan to turn submerged ruins of ancient Alexandria, including those of the Lighthouse of Alexandria, into an underwater museum. In a few years visitors may be able to rent scuba gear and dive in the bay among the remains of the great Pharos Lighthouse.

Seven Wonders Part VI The Colossus at Rhodes

The island of Rhodes was an important economic centre in the ancient world. In 357 B.C. it was conquered by Mausolus of Halicarnassus, fell into Persian hands in 340 B.C., and was finally captured by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.

When Alexander died his vast kingdom was divided between three of his generals: Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Antigous. The Rhodians supported Ptolemy (who wound up ruling Egypt) in this struggle which angered Antigous. He sent his son Demetrius to capture and punish the city of Rhodes.

The war was long, and ended when a fleet of ships from Egypt arrived to aid the city. To celebrate their victory and freedom, the people of Rhodes decided to build a giant statue of their patron god Helios. They melted down bronze from the many war machines Demetrius left behind for the exterior of the figure, and the siege tower he left behind became the scaffolding for the project.

The statue was one hundred and ten feet high and stood on a fifty-foot pedestal near the harbour mouth. Although the statue has been popularly depicted with its legs spanning the harbour entrance so that ships could pass beneath, it was actually posed in a more traditional Greek manner: nude, wearing a spiked crown, shading its eyes from the rising sun with its right hand, while holding a cloak over its left.

The architect of this great construction was Chares of Lindos, a Rhodian sculptor. The statue was constructed of bronze plates over an iron framework. Ancient accounts tell us that inside the statue were several stone columns which acted as the main support. Iron beams were driven into the stone and connected with the bronze outer skin. Each bronze plate had to be carefully cast then hammered into the right shape for its location in the figure, then hoisted into position and riveted to the surrounding plates and the iron frame.

The Colossus stood at the harbour entrance for some fifty-six years. Then an earthquake hit Rhodes and the statue collapsed. Huge pieces of the figure lay along the harbour for centuries.

But that which is by far the most worthy of our admiration, is the colossal statue of the Sun, which stood formerly at Rhodes, and was the work of Chares the Lindian, a pupil of the above-named Lysippus; no less than seventy cubits in height. This statue fifty-six years after it was erected, was thrown down by an earthquake; but even as it lies, it excites our wonder and admiration.
— Pliny the Elder

It is said that Ptolemy III Eurgetes of Egypt offered to pay for its reconstruction, but the Rhodians refused. They feared that somehow the statue had offended the god Helios, who used the earthquake to throw it down.

In the seventh century A.D. the Arabs conquered Rhodes and broke the remains of the Colossus up into smaller pieces and sold it as scrap metal. Legend says it took 900 camels to carry away the statue. Another sad ending for what was once one of the Seven Wonders of the World.

Seven Wonders Part V the Mausoleum of Mausolus at Halicarnassus

The city of Halicarnassus (present day Bodrum, Turkey) was the capitol of Caria, a small kingdom along the Mediterranean coast of Asia Minor. From 377 B.C. to 350 B.C. it was ruled by Mausolus and his queen Artemisia (who was also his sister).

When Mausolus died in 353 B.C., his body was entombed in what became known as the Maussolleion or Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. It is from the name Mausolus itself that the term mausoleum was created and associated with all tombs.

The tomb, planned by the ruler for himself was designed by the Greek architects Satyros and Pythius of Priene. After the death of Mausolus, Artemisia had work on the tomb continue. She, too, died before it was completed and was interred there as well.

The Mausoleum was made up of three parts: a square base on the bottom, 36 columns (9 on each side) in the middle, and topped by a stepped pyramid that had 24 steps. All of this was covered in ornate carvings and embellished with life-size and larger-than-life statues. At the very top was a 25-foot-high marble sculpture consisted of standing statues of both Mausolus and Artemisia riding in a chariot pulled by four horses.

Much of the Mausoleum was made out of marble and the entire structure reached 140 feet high. It was built on a hill that overlooked the city and sat on a stone platform in the center of a courtyard. Although large, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was known more for its ornate sculptures and carvings, most of which were painted in vibrant colors.

Five famous sculptors worked on the ornamentation of the tomb. Each sculptor had a section that they were responsible for – Bryaxis (north side), Scopas (east side), Timotheus (south side), and Leochares (west side). The chariot on top was created by Pythias. A staircase, flanked by stone lions, led to the top of the platform and statues of gods and goddesses adorned the outer wall.

Even when the city fell to Alexander the Great in 334 B.C. the Mausoleum remained undisturbed. In fact, it endured for almost 1,800 years before being destroyed by a series of earthquakes. By 1404 A.D. only the base of the Mausoleum survived.

After that much of the marble was recycled by the Crusaders, who occupied the city by then. It was used to build other buildings and reinforce the walls of the fortress they were using. In 1522 the crypt itself was raided and over time the Mausoleum was forgotten and houses were built on the site.

In the 1950s, Charles Newton, a British archaeologist, was the first to recognize that some of the decorations at Bodrum Castle (the former Crusader fortress) could have come from the Mausoleum. After extensive research and excavating, he found the site of the Mausoleum. This led to the recovery of many sections of the reliefs that had once decorated the walls and several statues, which can now be found in the British Museum in London.

The ruins are still visible today, as a protected site, in the center of the city of Bodrum. There is not much to be seen, however, as little is left but an earth pit with a few stones and column drums. A sad fate for what was once a wonder of the world.

Seven Wonders Part IV – the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

I have seen the walls and Hanging Gardens of ancient Babylon, the statue of Olympian Zeus, the Colossus of Rhodes, the mighty work of the high Pyramids and the tomb of Mausolus. But when I saw the temple at Ephesus rising to the clouds, all these other wonders were put in the shade.
— Philon of Byzantium

Artemis was the Greek goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, the Moon, and chastity. She was the twin sister of Apollo. Though she was worshipped widely throughout Greece, it seemed she had some trouble keeping a place of worship.

The first shrine to the goddess Artemis was probably built around 800 B.C. on a marshy strip near the river at Ephesus. The shrine was destroyed and rebuilt several times over the next few hundred years. By 600 B.C., the city of Ephesus had become a major port of trade and an architect named Chersiphron was engaged to build a new, large, temple.

This temple didn't last long. In 550 B.C. King Croesus of Lydia conquered Ephesus. During the fighting, the temple was destroyed. Croesus proved himself a gracious winner though, by contributing generously to the building of a new temple.

The new temple was the pride of Ephesus until 356 B.C. when it was burned to the ground by Herostratus, who did this so that his name would go down in history. Shortly after this infamous deed, a new temple was commissioned.

The architect was Scopas of Paros, one of the most famous sculptors of his day. Ephesus was one of the greatest cities in Asia Minor at this point and no expense was spared in the construction. The temple was built in the same marshy place as before. To prepare the ground, Piny recorded that "layers of trodden charcoal were placed beneath, with fleeces covered with wool upon the top of them."

The building is thought to be the first completely constructed with marble and one of its most unusual features were 36 columns whose lower portions were carved with figures in high-relief.

The temple also housed many works of art including four bronze statues of Amazon women. Piny recorded the length of this new temple at 425 feet and the width at 225 feet. Some 127 columns, 60 feet in height, supported the roof. In comparison the Parthenon, the remains of which stand on the acropolis in Athens today, was only 230 feet long, 100 feet wide and had 58 columns. According to Piny, construction took 120 years, though some experts suspect it may have only taken half that time.

This Temple of Artemis was destroyed in A.D. 262 during a raid by the Goths. By this time both the religion of Artemis and the city of Ephesus were in decline. The bay where trading ships docked disappeared as silt from the river filled it. Many of the inhabitants of the city moved away to the surrounding hills; those that remained used the ruins of the temple as a source of building materials.

In 1863 the British Museum sent John Turtle Wood, an architect, to search for the temple. He searched for six years. Each year the British Museum threatened to cut off his funding unless he found something significant, and each year he convinced them to fund him for just one more season.

Finally in 1869, at the bottom of a muddy twenty-foot deep test pit, his crew struck the base of the great temple. Wood then excavated the whole foundation removing 132,000 cubic yards of the swamp to leave a hole some 300 feet wide and 500 feet long. The remains of some of the sculptured portions were found and shipped to the British Museum.

In 1904 another British Museum expedition, under the leadership of D.G. Hograth, continued the excavation. Hograth found evidence of five temples on the site, each constructed on top of the other.

Today the site of the temple is a marshy field. A single column is erect to remind visitors that once there stood in that place one of the wonders of the ancient world.

Seven Wonders Part III - the Statue of Zeus at Olympia

When the Temple of Zeus was completed at Olympia in 456 B.C., it was considered too simple to be worthy of the king of the gods. A statue of Zeus was commissioned from a sculptor named Phidias, already famous for his forty-foot high statue of the goddess Athena. It took him 12 years but the project was completed by 435 B.C.

The figure's skin was composed of ivory and the beard, hair and robe of gold. Construction was by a technique known as chryselephantine, where gold-plated bronze and ivory sections were attached to a wooden frame. Because the weather in Olympia was so damp, the statue required care so that the humidity would not crack the ivory. It is said that for centuries the descendents of Phidias held the responsibility for this maintenance. To keep it in good shape the statue was constantly treated with olive oil kept in a special reservoir, which also served as a reflecting pool, in the floor of the temple. Light reflecting off the pool from the doorway may also have had the effect of illuminating the statue.

Besides the statue, there was little inside the temple. The Greeks preferred the interior of their shrines to be simple. The seated statue was 12 meters (43 feet) tall, and occupied half of the width of the aisle of the temple built to house it. "It seems that if Zeus were to stand up," geographer Strabo noted early in the 1st century BC, "he would unroof the temple."

The god sits on a throne, and he is made of gold and ivory. On his head lies a garland which is a copy of olive shoots. In his right hand he carries a Victory [Nike], which, like the statue, is of ivory and gold; she wears a ribbon and—on her head—a garland. In the left hand of the god is a sceptre, ornamented with every kind of metal, and the bird sitting on the sceptre is the eagle. The sandals also of the god are of gold, as is likewise his robe. On the robe are embroidered figures of animals and the flowers of the lily. The throne is adorned with gold and with jewels, to say nothing of ebony and ivory. Upon it are painted figures and wrought images.
Pausanias, Description of Greece, Book 5, Ch. 11

No copy in marble or bronze has survived, though there are recognizable but approximate versions on coins of nearby Elis and on Roman coins to give researchers clues about its appearance.

The Roman Emperor Caligula decreed that all such statues of gods were to be brought to Rome so that the heads could be removed and his own put in their place. The scaffolding attached to the statue collapsed, accompanied by, according to legend, a loud laughing noise. Shortly after this Caligula was assassinated (41 A.D.).

In 391 A.D. Roman Emperor Theodosius I banned the worship of the pagan gods and ordered the temples closed. The Olympia temple fell into disrepair and was eventually brought down by earthquakes.

The fate of the statue of Zeus is largely unknown. Some believe it was carried off to Constantinople where it was destroyed in a fire in 475 A.D. Others believe it was destroyed by earthquakes and fire along with the temple that housed it.

Seven Wonders Part II – The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Legend says the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were built by King Nebuchadnezzar in 600 B.C. for his queen, Amyitis, who missed the mountains and greenery of her homeland.

The Hanging Gardens probably did not really hang but were built on terraces which were part of a ziggurat and was irrigated by water lifted up from the Euphrates. The name comes from an inexact translation of the Greek word kremastos, or the Latin word pensilis, which means not just "hanging", but "overhanging" as in the case of a terrace or balcony.

The Greek historian Diodorus Siculus gave one of the best accounts of the site:
The approach to the Garden sloped like a hillside and the several parts of the structure rose from one another tier on tier. On all this, the earth had been piled…and was thickly planted with trees of every kind that, by their great size and other charm, gave pleasure to the beholder. The water machines [raised] the water in great abundance from the river, although no one outside could see it.

Impressive not only for its beauty, the gardens would also have required an impressive feat of engineering to supply the massive structure with soil and water. There were paths and steps and fountains and gorgeous flowers. The gardens were rumoured to be about 400 feet wide, 400 feet long, and over 80 feet high. Some historians believe the gardens were built in a series of platforms that all together were 320 feet high.

Stone tablets from Nebuchadnezzar’s reign give detailed descriptions of the city of Babylonia, its walls, and the palace, but do not refer to the Hanging Gardens, which make some historians question whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon ever actually existed.

In 1899, German archaeologist Robert Koldewey discovered a basement with fourteen large rooms with stone arch ceilings while excavating the Southern Citadel at Babylon. Ancient records indicated that only two locations in the city had made use of stone, the north wall of the Northern Citadel, and the Hanging Gardens.

The north wall of the Northern Citadel had already been found and had, indeed, contained stone. This made it seem likely that Koldewey had found the cellar of the gardens. He continued exploring the area and discovered many of the features reported by Diodorus. Finally a room was unearthed with three large, strange holes in the floor. Koldewey concluded this had been the location of the chain pumps that raised the water to the garden's roof. The foundations that Koldewey discovered measured some 100 by 150 feet. Smaller than the measurements described by ancient historians, but still impressive.

While Koldewey was convinced he'd found the gardens, some modern archaeologists call his discovery into question, arguing that this location is too far from the river to have been irrigated with the amount of water that would have been required. Also, tablets recently found at the site suggest that the location was used for administrative and storage purposes, not as a pleasure garden.

It can be argued, however, that the Hanging Gardens are not mentioned in the Babylonian stone tablets because they were considered part of the ziggurat structure and not a separate entity in itself.

We may never know for sure whether the Hanging Gardens of Babylon really did exist. If the gardens did exist, they were most likely destroyed by an earthquake in the second century B.C. In this case, the fallen remains, mostly made of mud-brick, would have slowly eroded away over the centuries.